Read about the evidence Aeschines Aeschin. Plot on a Map Athens. The city of Athens lived under a radically democratic government from until BCE. Before the earlier date there was democracy to be found here and there in the government of Athens , and democratic institutions survived long after the latter date, but for those years the city of Athens was self-consciously and decidedly democratic, autonomous, aggressive, and prosperous. Democracy in Athens was not limited to giving citizens the right to vote.
Athens was not a republic, nor were the People governed by a representative body of legislators. In a very real sense, the People governed themselves, debating and voting individually on issues great and small, from matters of war and peace to the proper qualifications for ferry-boat captains for the latter, see Aeschin.
The Athenians understood the value of checks and balances and of enforcing time for reflection before acting. They understood that professionalism is necessary in certain jobs, that accountability was necessary of most jobs, and that some jobs required absolute job-security.
The system evolved over time, suffered two complete breakdowns in the 5th century , and is certainly open to criticism at many points during its history. Nevertheless, it was coherent enough during those two centuries that we can describe it, in general terms, without being too far wrong on any point. And despite its moments of imprudence, injustice, and indecision, it was an experiment remarkable enough to deserve our attention.
The early history of Athenian Democracy and its development is the subject of another article in this series. This general description of how the Athenians governed themselves will focus on the 4th century BCE , both because the democracy was most fully developed during that time and because the majority of our evidence either comes from that period, or describes the the Athenian government during that period.
Read about the evidence Demosthenes Dem. Aristotle Aristot. As a member of the Demos, this young man could participate in the Assembly of Citizens that was the central institution of the democracy. So the Athenian Demos was the local village, the population generally, and the assembly of citizens that governed the state. The democratic government of Athens rested on three main institutions, and a few others of lesser importance. These were supplemented by the Council of the Areopagus , the Archons , and the Generals.
While Generals and Archons will appear here and there in the descriptions of other institutions, they were really servants of the Demos and do not require extensive discussion in this relatively brief introduction to Athenian Democracy. Read about the evidence Plutarch Plut. Plutarch Plut. Plot on a Map Sparta. The Assembly was the regular opportunity for all male citizens of Athens to speak their minds and exercise their votes regarding the government of their city.
It was the most central and most definitive institution of the Athenian Democracy. Before BCE, the Court of the Areopagus controlled legislation in Athens , but in that year Ephialtes instituted a reform that diminished the power of the Areopagus and increased the power of the Assembly of the people Aristot. This Assembly became synonymous with democracy. Under this government, he says, the People administers all business by decrees and by law-courts Aristot. When Aristotle mentions the People and government by decrees, he is describing the Assembly.
Demosthenes Dem. In the Assembly each male citizen of Athens could speak, regardless of his station. Read about the evidence Plato Plat. Of course, some people might be better qualified than others to speak on certain subjects, and the citizens of Athens could be very critical when anyone tried to speak outside of his expertise. But, Socrates continues, when the discussion is not about technical matters but about the governing of the city, the man who rises to advise them on this may equally well be a smith, a shoemaker, a merchant, a sea-captain, a rich man, a poor man, of good family or of none Plat.
Thucydides Thuc. Apollodorus Dem. Plot on a Map Attica. There is the question of participation by Athenians living in the countryside of Attica , outside the city of Athens. While these people were certainly citizens of Athens , it may often have been difficult for them to attend a meeting of the Assembly. This would have been especially true when emergency meetings were called on short notice, such as the occasion when news of a military disaster came to the city in the evening, and a special Assembly convened the very next morning Dem.
This Assembly , and any others like it, must have consisted mainly of citizens living close to the city. And even when there was more warning before a meeting, we have to wonder how many Athenians living in the countryside of Attica would have made a 50 or 60 mile journey to downtown Athens and back.
In the 5th century we can estimate the adult male population of Athens , and thus the number of men eligible to participate in an Assembly , to have been 40, - 60,, and in the 4th century , 20, - 30, But the number of Athenians in attendance at a given meeting seems to have been considerably lower. Thucydides makes the statement that during the Peloponnesian War - BCE there were usually only people at a meeting Thuc.
Aeschines Aeschin. Aristophanes Aristoph. Plot on a Map Salamis. When the Assembly met, the male citizens assembled to discuss the affairs of the city, and this discussion required that each citizen have freedom to speak his mind.
This freedom was vital to the proper functioning of the Assembly , whether the issue at stake was some important public policy Dem. In an anecdote from the distant past, Demosthenes suggests that freedom of speech had a long history at Athens , and persisted despite periodic attempts to limit it. He recounts how in the 6th century BCE the island of Salamis had revolted from Athenian control, and the Athenians had forbidden anyone even to propose a war to recover the island; but Solon , a real person whose place in Athenian history became subject of legend, composed a poem on the subject poetry on the subject was evidently not forbidden , and through this ruse got around the law and convinced Athens to fight for Salamis Dem.
We might note, here, that Demosthenes claims a certain freedom of speech to have extended even to resident foreigners and slaves Dem.
This freedom to speak was not absolute or without regulation. Aeschines tells us, for example, that in the early democracy before the 5th century citizens over 50 years of age could speak first, and only after those had their say could younger men speak Aeschin.
Other formal restrictions could apply, such as decrees limiting discussion of certain topics to certain meetings of the Assembly Aeschin. Other, less legitimate but perhaps more effective limits could be imposed: the crowd might raise a clamor and refuse to listen to a speaker advocate an unpopular proposal Dem. Individual citizens could lose the right to participate in the Assembly by committing various offenses Aeschin. Demosthenes mentions legal penalties for people who attend a meeting of the Assembly while owing a debt to the public treasury Dem.
Also prohibited from participating were: anyone convicted of prostituting himself Aeschin. Read about the evidence Aristotle Aristot. Citizens were paid for attending the Assembly , to ensure that even the poor could afford to take time from their work to participate in their own government.
Aristotle recognized that inclusion of all citizens and freedom to speak are not the only hallmarks of a democratic constitution, but that the most democratic states pay their citizens for attending the Assembly.
In the 4th century , when Timocrates had proposed that the Athenians loosen enforcement of penalties against those who owe debts to the state, Demosthenes claimed that there would be no money left in the treasury to pay for attendance at the Assembly , and he went on to equate that outcome with an end to Democracy Dem. Read about the evidence Thucydides Thuc. The traditional meeting-place for the Assembly was the open space on top of the hill of the Pnyx Thuc.
The Pnyx was open to the sky, and thus meetings of the Assembly must have been influenced by the weather; the laws that mandated good weather omens before the election of military officers Aristot.
In each prytany, there were three regular assemblies in addition to the Sovereign Assembly ; these were simply called Assemblies Aristot. It seems likely that in the 5th century only the Sovereign Assemblies were regularly scheduled, because Thucydides mentions a period of 40 days in the year in which there was no Assembly Thuc. Apart from the Sovereign Assembly , one of the remaining three was an occasion for any citizen who wished to present a suppliant-branch and address his fellow citizens about any public or private matter that concerned him Aristot.
The ability of citizens to voice complaints in this public forum may have deterred certain bad behavior, or at least made the perpetrators think twice. Aeschines recounts how on one occasion some men assaulted a man named Pittalacus. On the next day when Pittalacus was in the marketplace, his attackers came up to him and tried to assuage him; they were afraid that their crime would be published to the whole city, since there was to be an Assembly that day Aeschin. The other two regularly scheduled meetings in each prytany were concerned, according to Aristotle , with other things Aristot.
Some of this other business was scheduled to happen at particular assemblies during the year. At an Assembly held on the 11th day of the first prytany, the people voted on whether or not to hold an review of all the laws Dem.
In the 6th prytany, there was discussion of whether or not to hold an ostracism, discussion of any information against people charged with being informers—in this category, no more than three citizens and three resident foreigners—and discussion of people accused of failing to perform some assigned public service Aristot.
A meeting during the 6th prytany was also the occasion for election of military officers Aristot. Read about the evidence Apollodorus Dem. At least until the middle of the 4th century the Assembly occasionally met to conduct a trial, most often an impeachment Dem.
Assemblies do not seem to have taken place on fixed days during each prytany, but they did not happen on days when the law-courts were in session Dem. They seem also to have been scheduled around other important events, such as religious festivals.
Aeschines is highly critical of an Assembly that was called on the 8th day of the month Elaphobolion, a day of sacrifices to Asclepius the orator says that this was unprecedented in memory Aeschin. Sometimes our sources seem to use it to refer to extra meetings, in addition to the normal four that happened in each prytany.
But at other times the term seems to indicate an Assembly called at short notice, but not necessarily an extra Assembly. Officials of the Council called together a meeting of the Assembly , which opened with various religious rituals before the citizens were invited to speak and vote on matters of public business. If the Assembly was to vote on some matter by ballot, the Prytaneis distribute the ballots Dem. Read about the evidence Xenophon Xen.
In the 5th century , the Prytaneis actually managed the conduct of a meeting of the Assembly Xen. These Proedroi managed the conduct of the Assembly ; deciding when to put a question to the vote Aeschin. The People did, on occasion, override the will of the officials conducting the meetings, as when, in the late 5th century , the Prytaneis were unwilling to allow a vote, the People overrode them with menacing shouts Xen.
The selection or appointment of Proedroi was potentially subject to corruption, which Aeschines hints at on two occasions Aeschin. The opening of a meeting of the Assembly was marked by rituals. A sacrifice was made and carried around the area, and there was a prayer, both of these intended to purify the proceedings Aeschin.
The heralds offered the prayer Aeschin. Xenophon Xen. Even the most serious of matters were often decided by show of hands, such as the impeachment and condemnation of generals Aristot.
Under certain circumstances, the Assembly would vote by ballot psephos Xen. Voting by ballot was limited to issues which had to be decided by a quorum of citizens Dem. Once the Assembly had approved something, the decree, its date, and the names of the officials who put the matter to the vote, were recorded and preserved as a public record of the proceedings of government Aeschin.
The Council of represented the full-time government of Athens. It consisted of citizens, 50 from each of the ten tribes, who served for one year. The Council could issue decrees on its own, regarding certain matters, but its main function was to prepare the agenda for meetings of the Assembly. Andocides Andoc. Aristotle lists service on the Council among those offices chosen by lot Aristot. He elsewhere says that in a democratic city, the Council was the most important board of magistrates Aristot.
Through most of the 5th and 4th centures BCE, citizens were paid for their participation in the Council Aristot. Before taking their seats on the Council , newly selected Councilors had to undergo scrutiny dokimasia , an audit of their fitness to serve Aristot. Read about the evidence Lysias Lys. Lysias makes the claim that the law of scrutiny was primarily intended to deny political office to men who had participated in one of the short-lived oligarchic coups of the 5th century BCE, or the Tyranny of the Thirty these events are discussed above Lys.
Lysias Lys. The Nine Archons underwent scrutiny before taking office Aristot. In fact, according to Aeschines , any citizen could call upon any other citizen to undergo scrutiny at any time, to determine whether he deserved the privilege of speaking before the Assembly Aeschin.
Furthermore, every young Athenian man underwent a scrutiny before the members of his deme before he was enrolled in the list of citizens Dem. The scrutiny of newly selected Councilors was managed by the Thesmothetae, the lower six of the nine archons Aristot. According to Xenophon , they were also asked if they honored their family graves Xen. After the candidate answered the questions, and any accusers had come forward, the Council voted by show of hands Aristot.
There was also monarchy rule by one individual who inherited the position by birth and tyranny rule by a leader who seized power. For a short period, Thebes was the leading power in the region, its position maintained in part by the Sacred Band , an elite fighting force made up of pairs of male homosexual lovers who defeated armies from Athens and Sparta between and B.
Philip became ruler of Greece, effectively ending the era of Athenian democracy. In this context of rival city-states and shifting alliances, the emergence of a democratic self-government in Athens - however limited - was a revolutionary development in world history, allowing those who could vote to actively participate in setting policies for the community.
Link to Topic 3. District of Columbia the nation's 51st state and its first city-state. The COVID pandemic has increased efforts by governments to function digitally rather than through face-to-face meetings and interactions.
Governments at every level are using mobile apps and social media platforms to communicate information to people about infection rates and appropriate public health practices. At local, state, and national levels, government meetings are being held virtually; in May the House of Representatives voted to allow remote voting and virtual hearings, ending a year requirement that members be physically present to conduct business. Watch the following videos and consider whether digital technologies and smartphones are a way for more people to participate more fully in democratic government:.
In this context, it is possible to consider the issue of how will humans govern outer space? It is projected that there will be regular settlements on the moon, an area about the size of Africa, within the next decade. There are complex issues of exploration and resource ownership and management to be settled.
What will the post-pandemic governments of the future look like? Everyone from elected policymakers to everyday people will be involved in answering this question in the months and years ahead. Athenian democracy's foundational principles included equality, harmony, debate, and general education.
Learn how to apply these same principles to more modern-day media by evaluating the community standards, rules, and policies on social media platforms:. The unit covers one week of instructional activities and remote learning for students.
This activity can be adapted and used for in-person, fully online, and blended learning formats. Democracy was not the only accomplishment that modern day America owes to Ancient Greece. Greek thinkers made history-altering contributions in science Thales , mathematics Pythagoras and Euclid , medicine Hippocrates , philosophy Socrates, Plato and Aristotle , and history, poetry, and drama Herodotus, Thucydides, Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes and Euripides.
Athletic competitions , signified by the Olympics and its long-distance races, also stretch back to Ancient Greece. Modern marathons have their origins in ancient Greece with the legend of Pheidippides, a messenger. During the Battle of Marathon in BCE, Pheidippides is said to have run from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce a Greek victory, a distance of about Google Doodles celebrated Thomas Longboat's st birthday with an animation and a short biography on June 4, Running is deeply part of American Indian culture and history.
It is a spiritual practice for Hopi people. Jim Thorpe the first Native American to win a gold medal and the greatest multi-sport athlete of the early 20th century , Louis Tewanima in the and Olympics , and Billy Mills Olympics also excelled as runners during the Olympics. Louis Tewanima's story is remarkable, though largely forgotten Sharp, As a teenager, he was taken away from his family in Arizona by the U.
The school's motto was "Kill the Indian, Save the Man. He finished ninth in the marathon and won a silver medal in the 10, meter event in the Olympics, setting a U. The summer Olympics featured other remarkable performances by Native American athletes, reported Kathleen Sharp in Smithsonian Magazine Duke Kahanamoku won a gold and silver medal in freestyle swimming events, Jim Thorpe won two gold medals, Andrew Sockalexis finished 4th in the marathon, Benjamin "Joe" Keeper placed 4th in the 10, meter race, and Alexander Wuttunee-Decoteau took 6th place in the 5, meter competition.
In addition to the marathon, athletic competition in ancient Greece featured tests of individual skill and strength for men - there were no team sports or records kept of individual achievements. Events included sprinting, wrestling, javelin, discus, chariot racing, and a fight to the death called "pankation. Women were excluded from Olympic events with men. Unmarried girls were allowed to participate in their own athletic event - a once-every-four-years foot race during the Festival of Hera known as the Heraean Games.
The first Olympic woman champion was Cynisca from Sparta who won the four-horse chariot race twice, in and BCE. Monuments were built to honor her achievements. The modern Olympics began in and women were allowed to participate for the first time in It is designed for in person, virtual or hybrid learning settings and addresses the following curriculum standard:.
While the word democracy is often used, it is experienced far less often by most people in this country. Image on Pixabay Free for commercial use, no attribution required. Democracy also means having a say in determining what happens in one's work, family, education and recreation settings.
It is through vote and voice, people have opportunities to exercise control and agency over their lives. Democratic schools operate classrooms where students invest time and energy in designing their educational activities. Advocates believe schools should organize educational experiences so that both students and teachers have voice and vote about what happens instructionally and interpersonally in classrooms and corridors.
Democratic schools, contend Michael Apple and James Beane , involve two essential elements:. Such interactions lack the open back and forth conversational exchanges of real democratic talk, putting off students or leaving them openly cynical about the idea of democracy in schools or the larger society. Having student representatives on local school boards or other educational decision-making committees is another opportunity for students to have democratic experiences in schools.
Many districts allow students to have an advisory role on school boards and committees, but actual student voting power is fairly rare. In Maryland, however, students do vote on many school boards in the state, although not on the hiring of school personnel. In the state's Montgomery County, high school students choose their school board student representative through direct election. Allowing students to vote on local school boards is complicated, and in some places, a contentious issue.
In late , a group of Maryland parents filed a lawsuit against the practice after a student representative cast the deciding vote to block a return to in-person schooling during the pandemic.
The invasion was allegedly to enforce a drug law, but who can imagine citizens being treated this way while they are having drinks and dancing in a nightclub? A woman reported that the police forced her to undress herself in front of the crowd and while she was talking to them about her democratic rights, a policeman responded ' Here we have no democracy, do you understand?
The assaults reach the level of real torture of citizens by the police, with fake accusations to make leftists and anarchists appear guilty and part of terrorist groups.
The state violence of the last weeks peaked on the night of 17 November, after the huge popular demonstration for the 46th anniversary of the Athens Polytechnic uprising.
The demonstration was massive more than 25, people , vocal and peaceful, the people managed to safeguard it and many Mps of the Left were present. Therefore, despite the hideous climate of fear the government had cultivated more than 5, fully-armed policemen, two drones, 50 police motorcycles, etc.
Nevertheless, after the demonstration a horrendous, mega police operation took place in Exarcheia with dozens of policemen attacking, beating, and arresting -under fake accusations -random citizens who were just passing by the neighborhood, going back home, walking on the streets.
It was the kind of law and order that could have been fantasized by a totalitarian regime of past epochs — images incompatible with a western, democratic state. Prime Minister Mitsotakis had declared 'less state' during his electoral campaign, and by that he meant the recruitment of 1, policemen and 1, border guards, while leaving public schools without teachers, especially those in our islands.
This government requires a ferocious police force.
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